Abstract
This paper examines the symbolic and theological significance of mountains in the Qurʾān through semantic, textual, and sociological analysis. While mountains appear in many religious traditions as sacred sites, cosmological centers, and thresholds between the human and the divine, the Qurʾān employs three distinct terms for mountains—jabal/jibāl, rawāsi, and ṭūr—each carrying unique semantic and theological implications. By analyzing the linguistic roots of these terms within the framework of classical Arabic morphology, the study demonstrates how Qurʾānic language embeds layered meanings related to creation, stability, elevation, and moral responsibility. The paper further explores four major Qurʾānic functions of mountains: manifestations of awe before divine power, symbols of cosmic stability, metaphors for moral and psychological weight, and sites of revelation. Drawing on insights from sociology, particularly the works of Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, the study interprets these mountain metaphors as symbolic models for social order, institutional stability, and moments of moral transformation. Ultimately, the paper argues that the Qurʾān presents mountains not merely as geological formations but as metaphysical anchors of creation and archetypes for human character formation. In this framework, mountains represent both the stability required for ethical life and the vertical aspiration toward spiritual elevation.
Keywords
Mountains in the Qurʾān, Qurʾānic symbolism, jabal, rawāsi, ṭūr, Islamic theology, sacred geography, sociological interpretation of religion, revelation and nature.
If only existence had a tongue,
So that it could lift the veil from divine mysteries.
– Rumi
Introduction
In this paper, before narrowing my discussion to Islam, I will situate “mountains” within a cross-religious perspective. Briefly, I will discuss Hindu, Buddhist, Judaic, and Christian traditions and highlight how mountains globally function as cosmological centers, sites of revelation, and thresholds between the human and the divine. In the following section, I will analyze the root meanings of three Qurʾānic terms and show how their linguistic structure itself embeds theological, moral, and even cosmological meanings. In the next section, I will explore four Qurʾānic functions of mountains: awe before divine power, symbols of stability, moral weight, and responsibility. In the final section, I will engage in a sociological reading of mountains and explore how they can serve as models of human nature.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr reminds us that the Qurʾān affirms that God’s creation possesses a sacred quality, and that Islamic ethics encompasses not only the human social order but also animals and plants, and even mountains, lakes, and seas. Visible signs of stability and grandeur in the natural world crystallize this sense of an ordered, valued reality entrusted to human care. Scholars generally agree that sacred scriptures are timeless, including, in this case, the Qurʾān. However, this timelessness should not be confused with the status of “classics,” such as ancient works by Plato, Homer, or the Stoics. The Qurʾān is not a classic text in this sense, for it addresses both humanity and nature directly and, in certain verses, even calls upon and takes witness from elements of the natural world, including mountains, the sun, the moon, and animals. In the Qurʾānic vision, nature thus occupies a central role and may itself serve as a locus of wisdom.
There are a total of 56 verses that mention the mountain in the Qurʾān. What interested me in this analysis was that the Qurʾān employs three distinct words for mountains: jabal/jibal, rawasi, and tur, each used in specific contexts. The most common word used for a mountain is “jabal”, which is mentioned in 37 different verses.[1] Next, the word “tur” is mentioned 10 times,[2] and “rawasi” is mentioned in 9 different verses in the Qurʾān.[3] My initial thought was, is there a reason why three different words are used, where they are used, and what is the connotation of their usage? Are these words used as synonyms, or is there a deeper meaning behind them? According to Nasr, the Qurʾān is described as having a twofold nature: one bāṭin, translated as “esoteric, hidden, inward, or inner,” and the other ẓāhir, meaning “exoteric, explicit, outward, or apparent.”[4] If these verses specifically mention mountains in an esoteric way, would this imply that they carry a deeper meaning and therefore require, in Arabic terms, a taʾwīl reading – that is, an interpretation that moves beyond a purely surface-level reading toward a deeper level of analysis?
Drawing from vocabulary, classical lexicography, and sociological analysis, I argue that the Qurʾān’s three distinct terms for mountains (jabal, rawāsi, and ṭūr) form a symbolic architecture for institutions and character formation. Together, they portray mountains not merely as geological formations but as metaphysical anchors of creation and sites of moral transformation. This framework also provides a blueprint for understanding character stability and spiritual elevation in human life.
“Mountains”
Mountains, often overlooked by ordinary people, are usually explored for leisure activities such as hiking or skiing, or by businessmen and governments to assess their mineral value and determine how it could be extracted for manufacturing purposes. However, recent studies in orology or montology show that mountains play a crucial foundational role in sustaining nature through their stabilizing, ecological, and climate functions; to be more specific, recent studies found that mountains prevent excessive geological movements, help regulate crustal pressure, climate, wind patterns, and precipitation, and also function as water reservoirs.[5] But in this paper, I will focus on the theological aspect rather than the scientific aspect of it.
While mountains exist in the physical reality, in many religious traditions, they also exist as a spiritual multiverse. To provide an example, mountains, rivers, and lakes are considered sacred by Hindu believers, and pilgrimages to these places can be seen as a form of spatial practice that not only endows the place with sacred character but also engenders the notion of a larger, sacralized space.[6] Moreover, in Hindu tradition, mountains are described as “the connection of the earthly and the transcendent, and as the spiritual center of the Universe.”[7] Not only in Hinduism, but within Buddhism, especially in Tibetan and Himalayan traditions, the mountain is identified as the mythic center of the universe, an axis mundi,[8] and a pilgrimage site where humans are transformed and purified.[9] Likewise, in Christian and Judaic traditions, they serve as elevated sites where revelation, covenant, and divine presence are disclosed. For instance, based on the scripture, Mount Sinai is the locus where Prophet Moses encountered God, received the Law, and established the foundational covenant for Israel.[10] Similarly, Mount Zion is portrayed as a symbolic center of divine dwelling and communal identity.[11] Another example is Mount Moriah, which is identified as the site of the binding of Prophet Isaac, and stands at the heart of Jewish theology as the place where Prophet Abraham demonstrated absolute submission to divine will.[12] In addition to those examples, the Mount of Olives also holds major significance; it is the site of Jesus’ eschatological teachings, and in Jewish tradition, it is the expected site of final resurrection.[13] Thus, according to different traditions, mountains are not merely geological formations but theological axes, elevated thresholds where humans and divine reality intersect, shape community, and elevate one’s spirituality.
Semantic Roots
Above, I briefly mentioned how mountains play an important symbolic role across different traditions. In this paper, however, I will focus extensively on the Islamic tradition, specifically, the role of mountains in the Qurʾān. Before going over my analysis, I want to focus on the semantic meanings of Arabic words because, linguistically, root meanings provide deeper insight into a word’s denotation and connotations, which is crucial for accurately interpreting the intended message in complex or nuanced texts, in this case, the Qurʾān.
Classical Arabic is built upon a systematic root morphology, in which most lexical items are derived from a base of three consonants, known as a triliteral root. These roots typically carry a core semantic field: for example, “k-t-b” conveys meanings related to writing.[14] From this root, Arabic generates a wide array of words by inserting the consonants into preexisting morphological patterns. This process allows a single root to produce verbs, nouns, participles, and abstract concepts. For instance, from the root k-t-b, meaning “to write,” one derives kataba (he wrote), yaktubu (he writes), kitāb (book), maktab (school), maktūb (written/letter), kātib (writer), and maktaba (library). The reason for presenting this example is to show that, even when Arabic words take different forms, they continue to revolve around a shared root meaning. Similarly, when examining the Qurʾānic terms for mountains, one must take into account their primary root meanings before exploring the relevant verses.
Starting with the word jabal/jibāl, the root j-b-l carries the meanings “to mold, form, shape, fashion, knead, create, and pass.” Another word derived from the same root is jibillah (or jibla), meaning “natural disposition, nature, or temperament.” The terms jabal, jibāl, or ajbāl – our primary focus here – denote “mountain” or “mountains.” The range of meanings found in the derivatives of this root suggests a semantic movement from creation to nature, then to firmness, and finally to the more concrete and modern sense of “mountain.” These meanings thus revolve around ideas of natural formation, stability, and fixed disposition, whether physical, as in the case of mountains, or moral, as in the case of temperament.
The next term used for mountains in the Qurʾān is ṭūr, derived from the root ṭ-w-r. The fundamental sense of this root is connected with movement, rising, and development. This may be understood both physically – such as “rising” or “soaring upward,” as in the case of a mountain – and conceptually, as in “advancing,” “evolving,” or “changing through stages.” The literal sense of the verbal form ṭāra includes “to rise,” “to soar,” or “to ascend.” In a more abstract sense, the root also conveys meanings such as “to develop,” “to promote,” or “to advance,” as in making progress or furthering a task. In broader intellectual or scientific usage, it can denote development, promotion, or even evolution. Furthermore, the nominal form ṭawr, meaning “time,” “state,” “condition,” “stage,” or “phase,” indicates a degree within a process, such as a phase of development. The root can also appear in the form ṭūrī, meaning “wild” or “untamed.” Based on this semantic range, the term operates across multiple dimensions: physically, in reference to rising, soaring, and elevation; geographically, for instance in relation to Mount Sinai; and morally or socially, in connection with advancement and progress. The root ṭ-w-r thus unites the notion of height, as in elevation or mountains, with temporality and change, as expressed through stages or phases, and with development or evolution, particularly in the context of spiritual growth.
Another key Qurʾānic term associated with mountains and stability derives from the root r-s-w, which carries the meanings “to be firm,” “stable,” or “anchored.” This root is applied both literally – such as to ships or mountains – and metaphorically, to faith, institutions, or principles. For example, the expression rasā ʿalā al-sāḥil is translated as “anchored at the coast,” while in a figurative sense arsā al-asās means “he laid the foundation.” The root r-s-w thus carries a cosmic metaphor: mountains become symbols of stability and balance in creation, serving as anchors that prevent chaos. From a theological perspective, this symbolism extends to faith and divine law, where that which is “set firm” becomes unshakable. On the basis of these root meanings, we may summarize as follows: jabal refers to what is created and endowed with a given nature; ṭūr designates what ascends and unfolds through stages; and rawāsi denotes that which is firmly anchored, thereby conferring stability.
Mountains in the Qurʾān
When examining the Qurʾānic connotations of mountains, four primary themes emerge: awe and trembling before divine power; witness to obedience and praise; a symbol of stability and permanence – though not absoluteness; and a moral and psychological metaphor. When God “reveals Himself to the mountain” (tajallā li’l-jabal) in Q 7:143,[15] it “crumbles into dust.”[16] This tajallī (revelation) signifies not a direct or full vision of God, but a partial and veiled manifestation – one that even the mountain, an archetype of stability, could not withstand. This reality may be interpreted as a lesson in theological humility and human limitation: the mountain becomes a mirror of transcendence, and its collapse signifies that creation cannot endure the direct glory of the Divine. Furthermore, another example in Q 59:21[17] explains that, had the Qurʾān been sent down upon a mountain, it would have crumbled in humility, symbolizing hearts capable of bearing the moral weight of revelation. This verse is also frequently linked to the scriptural account of the “trust” (al-amānah) in Q 33:72.[18] According to it, God offers a tremendous moral responsibility to the heavens, the earth, and the mountains, yet all refuse to bear it out of fear, while human beings accept it in ignorance – a duty that even mountains could not carry, having recognized the overwhelming seriousness of this moral responsibility. From a metaphorical perspective, just as the earth is anchored by mountains, the amānah anchors the social and spiritual order; its acceptance signifies humankind’s unique burden of free will, accountability, and ethical responsibility.
The other term, rawāsi, describes mountains as God’s stabilizing “pegs” that prevent the earth from shaking, and it appears in nine key verses. Tafsīr (exegetic) literature explains that rawāsi functions as a metaphysical image of God’s providential order, portraying mountains as “stabilizers” that ensure the world operates in harmony.[19] In Q 78:6-7, God asks, “Have We not smoothed out the earth ˹like a bed˺, and ˹made˺ the mountains as ˹its˺ pegs…” Another example, in Q 31:10, “He created the heavens without pillars and placed firm mountains upon the earth so it does not shake with you, and scattered throughout it all types of creatures. And We send down rain from the sky, causing every type of fine plant to grow on earth.” Q 16:15 “He has placed into the earth firm mountains, so it does not shake with you, as well as rivers, and pathways so you may find your way” speaks about the manifestation of divine wisdom and mercy. These verses may be better understood in light of Johnderose’s research, which suggests that stabilizing imagery forms part of a broader concept of mīzān (cosmic balance) that the Qurʾān inscribes into the natural world.[20] Moreover, the role of mountains as awtād (“pegs”) and rawāsi (“firmly set heights”), manifested in the solidity of the terrestrial environment, is further supported by my empirical studies, which identify them as “stabilizers of the earth,” as noted earlier.[21]
The term ṭūr, an Aramaic/Syriac cognate of ṭūrā, means “mountain,” but in the Qurʾān it refers almost exclusively to Mount Sinai, also known as Ṭūr Sīnā.ʾ Unlike jabal or rawāsi, ṭūr carries a distinctly historical and revelatory association: a sacred location where God revealed the Law to Prophet Moses.[22] It also serves as a locus of ongoing divine communication. For instance, in the Qurʾān, the story of “raising the mountain over the Israelites”[23] is mentioned in 2:63[24] and 4:154[25] and interpreted both literally and figuratively. Here, the word ṭūr is specific to the name of the mountain as well as used in a revelatory fashion.
In other passages, ṭūr functions as the object of an oath; for instance, the chapter al-Ṭūr opens with the words, “By Mount Ṭūr and a Book inscribed,”[26] and the chapter al-Tīn: “By the fig and the olive, and Mount Sinai, and this secure city.”[27] These oaths invoke a geography of revelation that reflects a shared sacred history between the prophets Moses and Muhammad. Such clusters of oaths are significant because they intensify attention, authenticate an ensuing declaration, and foreground realities of profound metaphysical or moral importance.[28] In other words, when God swears by a created entity – whether a mountain, a city, or a cosmic phenomenon – He elevates it as a sign that bears witness to divine wisdom, order, or sacred history. As Angelika Neuwirth notes, Qurʾānic oath clusters often function “as rhetorical devices that bind the listener to a chain of earlier revelations, collapsing historical distance and embedding the Qurʾānic message within a broader scriptural landscape.”[29] Oaths also prepare the reader for eschatological warnings, moral exhortations, or assertions of divine authority, functioning as a “prelude that sacralizes the discourse that follows.”[30] In this way, Qurʾānic oaths invoking mountains, sacred cities, and symbolic landscapes are not mere formulas of swearing but deliberate invitations to reflect on revelation, prophecy, and the moral weight of sacred geography.
Analysis
In the previous section, I selected a few verses to illustrate where and how mountains are mentioned, particularly in relation to the narratives behind them. More generally, the Qurʾān invites readers to “reflect” (tafakkur) upon nature as a mirror of human conditions.[31] This mode of reflection constitutes one of the Qurʾān’s central epistemic methods, wherein knowledge arises not only from revelation but also from observing the natural world as an inscribed text. As Toshihiko Izutsu notes, the Qurʾān “constantly appeals to the human intellect through nature,” treating creation as a symbolic language through which ethical and metaphysical realities are disclosed.[32]
According to Émile Durkheim, societies survive by generating collective representations; symbols stabilize meaning and regulate behavior.[33] Qurʾānic “mountains” function in a similar way: they embody order, constraint, and transcendence, all of which are sociological dimensions of a functioning moral community. For instance, the Qurʾān uses the term rawāsi – as discussed in detail above – to refer to “firmly established anchors” that stabilize the earth and prevent it from shaking. Sociologically speaking, this imagery may be understood as referring to institutions that prevent society from moral and political collapse. To elaborate, institutions such as legal systems, moral norms, religious traditions, communal rituals, and educational structures function as the “anchors” of social life: they distribute pressure and prevent social “seismic activity.” Furthermore, Max Weber emphasizes the stabilizing effect of legal-rational authority and predictable rules, which generate social order and limit arbitrary power.[34] It could be deduced that, without stabilizers, societies become vulnerable to fragmentation, corruption, and political volatility, much like an unanchored terrain.
Another Qurʾānic term for mountains is ṭūr. Sociologically, it may represent moments of collective transformation. More specifically, it can be understood as a symbol of a society’s ethical “ascent” – a moment in which an entire community undergoes a reorientation of its moral horizon. This symbolism mirrors the narrative of Mount Sinai, where the Israelites received the Torah and were constituted as a covenantal community. As Frank Moore Cross observes, “Sinai represents the foundational moment when Israel becomes a moral and liturgical society.”[35] In sociological terms, this is a classic example of what Max Weber calls “charismatic rupture,” a moment in which revelation or prophetic authority destabilizes the old order and reorganizes social norms around a new, transcendent framework.[36] In this sense, ṭūr symbolizes moral rupture, insofar as it elevates a community into a new evaluative world. Moreover, ṭūr may be understood as a kind of “multiverse” of intersecting cosmologies, in which multiple religious narratives converge around mountaintops as sites of transformation. A clear parallel can be found in the life of Prophet Muhammad, who received the first revelation on Jabal al-Nur, at the Cave of Hira, marking one of the most consequential mountaintop events in Islamic sacred history. Prior to his prophethood, the Prophet Muhammad would retreat to this mountain for meditation and spiritual seclusion, seeking clarity and solitude. During one such retreat, Angel Gabriel appeared to him with the opening words of revelation: “Read in the name of your Lord who created …” (Q 96:1–5). In this episode, the mountain becomes the locus of a transformative encounter that inaugurated his prophetic mission and the revelation of the Qurʾān. Thus, it may be said that Mount Sinai and Jabal al-Nur together shape the Muslim imagination regarding where and how revelation “belongs” – namely, above and beyond the margins of ordinary life. Mountains are therefore not merely inert geographical features, but ritual and symbolic architectures. As this analysis suggests, mountains in the Qurʾān function as a symbolic blueprint for the construction of a just, resilient, and morally stable society.
Conclusion
Mountains in the Islamic tradition function as multi-layered symbols and realities. Their semantic links with jibillah (innate nature) and rawāsi/rāsiyāt (that which is firmly fixed in place) further reinforce their role as icons of stability, grounding both cosmology and law. By contrast, ṭūr evokes a site of dynamic encounter and revelation (Mount Sinai, Jabal al-Nūr). In this way, mountains become archetypes of the human condition: at times shaken and elevated by revelation, and at other times rooted in the enduring stability of divine law.
René Guénon, in The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times, argues that modern civilization has entered an age in which “quantity” dominates “quality.” In elaborating this claim, Guénon maintains that modernity flattens reality into purely material terms – science, economics, technology, and even religion – thereby distancing human beings from their own primordial nature. As a result, humanity has largely forgotten how to listen to, understand, and reflect upon creation.
Within this context, Qurʾānic mountain symbolism may be read as a critique of the flattening effects of modern quantitative civilization, which erodes transcendence and moral elevation, and as a reflection on society’s loss of the “vertical axis.” Put differently, mountains symbolize the qualitative dimension of reality – precisely what modern societies diminish through materialism and quantification. In this regard, the mountain metaphor becomes a call to restore verticality to human life by re-anchoring spirituality and social rootedness.
[1] Qur’anic verses referring to mountains include: 2:260; 7:74; 7:143; 7:171; 11:42; 11:43; 13:31; 14:46; 15:82; 16:68; 16:81; 17:37; 18:47; 19:90; 20:105; 21:79; 22:18; 24:43; 26:149; 27:88; 33:72; 34:10; 35:27; 38:18; 52:10; 56:5; 59:21; 69:14; 70:9; 73:14; 77:10; 78:7; 78:20; 79:32; 81:3; 88:19; 101:5.
[2] See additional Qur’anic verses: 2:63; 2:93; 4:154; 19:52; 20:80; 23:20; 28:29; 28:46; 52:1; 95:2.
[3] See verses: 13:3; 15:19; 16:15; 21:31; 27:61; 31:10; 41:10; 50:7; 77:27. Note: 34:13 has rāsiyāt as “fixed [cauldrons]” and not as “mountains.”
[4] Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966), 43–45.
[5] “How Global Temperature and Weather Patterns Affect Mountain Climates,” Penn LPS Online, January 24, 2024. https://lpsonline.sas.upenn.edu/features/how-global-temperature-and-weather-patterns-affect-mountain-climates
[6] Sandeep Banerjee and Subho Basu, “Secularizing the Sacred, Imagining the Nation-Space: The Himalaya in Bengali Travelogues, 1856–1901,” Modern Asian Studies 49, no. 3 (2015): 641, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24495446.
[7] Simon Piasecki, Mountains: Identity, Culture and Spirituality (London: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2014), 17.
[8] The axis mundi (Latin for “axis of the world”) is a symbolic center or cosmic pillar that connects the three fundamental levels of existence: heaven, earth, and the underworld. See also Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harcourt, 1959), 36–39.
[9] Geoffrey Samuel, Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993), 142–44.
[10] Exodus 19–20.
[11] Jon D. Levenson, Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible (Minneapolis: Winston Press, 1985), 111–42.
[12] Jon D. Levenson, The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 111–22.
[13] Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009), 631–36; see also Zechariah 14:3–4.
[14] For my translation, I am using the Hans Wehr Dictionary and Lane’s Lexicon.
[15] “When Moses came at the appointed time and his Lord spoke to him, he asked, “My Lord! Reveal Yourself to me so I may see You.” Allah answered, “You cannot see Me! But look at the mountain. If it remains firm in its place, only then will you see Me.” When his Lord appeared to the mountain, He levelled it to dust and Moses collapsed unconscious. When he recovered, he cried, “Glory be to You! I turn to You in repentance and I am the first of the believers.””
[16] The full episode begins when Moses asks to behold God directly, saying, “My Lord, show Yourself to me so that I may look upon You.” God responds that Moses cannot withstand such a vision, but invites him to look toward a nearby mountain as a mediated demonstration of divine majesty. God declares, “If it remains firm in its place, then you will see Me.” When the divine manifestation occurs, the mountain is instantly pulverized, and Moses collapses unconscious from the sheer force of the event. Upon recovering, Moses proclaims God’s transcendence and repents for having asked a request beyond human capacity.
[17] “Had We sent down this Quran upon a mountain, you would have certainly seen it humbled and torn apart in awe of Allah. We set forth such comparisons for people, ˹so˺ perhaps they may reflect.”
[18] “Indeed, We offered the trust to the heavens and the earth and the mountains, but they ˹all˺ declined to bear it, being fearful of it. But humanity assumed it, ˹for˺ they are truly wrongful ˹to themselves˺ and ignorant ˹of the consequences˺…”
[19] Ibn Kesir, Tefsiru’l-Kur’an il-Azim, trans. Bekir Topaloğlu et al., vol. 5 (Istanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, 1998), 89–90.
[20] Ahmad Qolbi Zidan Johnderose et al., “The Philosophy of Mountains in the Qur’an and Its Lessons on Stability, Resilience, and Environmental Ethics,” Tafse: Journal of Qur’anic Studies 9, no. 2 (July–December 2024): 244, https://doi.org/10.22373/tafse.v9i2.29034.
[21] Johnderose et al., “The Philosophy of Mountains in the Qur’an and Its Lessons on Stability, Resilience, and Environmental Ethics,” 244.
[22] See Q 2:63; 2:93; 4:154; 19:52; 20:80; 23:20; 28:29; 28:46; 52:1; 95:2.
[23] According to the Qurʾānic phrasing, the Israelites were told: “Hold firmly to what We have given you and listen” (2:63), an instruction they finally accepted under the looming presence of the mountain.
[24] “And ˹remember˺ when We took a covenant from you and raised the mountain above you ˹saying˺, ‘Hold firmly to that ˹Scripture˺ which We have given you and observe its teachings so perhaps you will become mindful ˹of Allah˺.’”
[25] “We raised the Mount over them ˹as a warning˺ for ˹breaking˺ their covenant and said, ‘Enter the gate ˹of Jerusalem˺ with humility.’ We also warned them, ‘Do not break the Sabbath,’ and took from them a firm covenant.”
[26] Q 52:1-2
[27] Q 95:1-3.
[28] Angelika Neuwirth, The Qur’an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 212–15.
[29] Neuwirth, The Qur’an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage, 212–15.
[30] Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes of the Qur’an, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 19–21.
[31] Verses that explicitly use tafakkur or call for reflection are 2:164; 3:190; 7:185; 16:11; 30:21; 45:13.
[32] Toshihiko Izutsu, God and Man in the Qur’an: Semantics of the Qur’anic (Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust, 2002), 228–34.
[33] Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, trans. Karen E. Fields (New York: Free Press, 1995), 34–44.
[34] Max Weber, Economy and Society, trans. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 956–1005.
[35] Frank Moore Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973).
[36] Max Weber, Economy and Society, 241–254.
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