Reclaiming Education’s Moral and Spiritual Foundations in the Modern Age

Abstract

This paper explores the comparison between modern education and spiritual education, particularly in the context of Islam. The central argument of my thesis is that modern education has lost its original purpose of developing the whole human being, encompassing intellectual, moral, and spiritual aspects. Instead, it now focuses heavily on producing workers and economic agents, rather than cultivating responsible, ethical, and spiritually grounded individuals. To guide this inquiry, my primary questions are: Can the Islamic education model offer solutions to contemporary problems? Can an educational framework that highlights the development of ethics and spirituality address modern systematic issues more effectively than purely utilitarian models?

Keywords

Spirituality, education, Islam, modernity, education problems, Islamic tradition

Introduction

Education has never been perfect. It has, had, and will always have flaws as it shadows the evolution of society. Therefore, unfortunately, education often struggles to keep pace with society’s growth, especially since public education lags behind in terms of innovation. Educational institutions not only teach subjects such as science and humanities, but they also promote the ideology of their respective nations. Ideology has the power to influence one’s belief system, and it is typically passed down through various social and cultural mechanisms, including family, education, media, and political and religious institutions. Creveld uses the metaphor of “colossal prison” to argue that the modern state, under the guise of law and order, has expanded its power so far that it effectively imprisons its citizens, not necessarily with walls and bars but through bureaucratic control.[1] By the end of the 19th century, schooling had become a standard fixture of society, with primary education rendered mandatory and specific ideas and ideals systematically instilled into young minds—what some critics might call an “illusion of progress.”

With this standard fixture in our lives, numerous reports have emerged, particularly in the news, highlighting serious problems that have arisen statistically over the years as a result of modern education. There have been reports on the increase of depression in students, identity crises, violence, and many other issues. Thenceforth, the question arises, why do we keep reading, hearing, or seeing these problems in this century? Can pre-modern or religiously grounded education models offer solutions to contemporary problems? Can an educational framework that highlights the development of ethics and spirituality address modern systematic issues more effectively than purely utilitarian models?

To find possible solutions to modern problems arising from modern education, I first researched the nature of these issues and whether they have indeed increased over the years. The first part of the paper presents the details of the four specific problems: how one-size-fits-all approaches are no longer effective, the decline of emotional intelligence, the risk of producing morally void individuals, and the prevalence of individualism. In the next section, solutions for these four problems will be drawn from religious traditions, particularly from Islamic concepts, as the integration of sacred knowledge, spirituality, and ethical actions is vital to creating a holistic education.

Problems of Modern Education

The lack of a spiritual foundation in certain modern education models fosters moral decay,[2] contributing to institutional challenges including rising school violence, inadequate workforce preparedness, teacher attrition, and systemic funding disparities. At this regard, it is important to comprehend modern education’s broader context, as its core dynamics evolved from a more extensive “modernization process,” generally marked by novelty and a break from tradition.[3] This modernization process navigated education toward a predominantly rational, bureaucratic, and utilitarian model that often neglects the spiritual or religious dimensions of human development or spiritual or religious needs. While these claims may be considered exaggerated or lacking robust statistical support, my analysis of data from the past three years indicates a noticeable increase in issues such as school violence. For instance, during the 2021-22 school year, U.S. public schools reported approximately 857,500 violent incidents and 67% of school reported having at least one violent incident, 61% of schools reported at least one physical attack or fight without a weapon, 4% of schools reported such an attack with a weapon, 28% of middle schools bullying at least once a week reported similarly cyberbullying also reported 37% of middle schools in once a week,[4] which sometimes led to students’ suicide after repeated bullying. Another pressing issue is inadequate workforce readiness. A Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) survey found that nearly 40 percent of employers reported that job applicants lacked basic literacy, numeracy, and communication skills.[5] Moreover, a 2023 study by the Learning Policy Institute indicates that more than 200,000 teachers leave the profession.[6] Low salaries, highly stressful everyday situations, insufficient training, and minimal classroom support all together frequently lead to burnout, disrupt the continuity of learning, and impact students’ academic and personal growth. Despite the federal government spending a lot of money annually on education and local districts, much of the allocated budget is absorbed by administrative costs rather than instructional quality or student support services, perpetuating inequitable outcomes.[7]

Furthermore, modern education is not merely failing because of organizational flaws, but because it is rooted in a worldview that neglects spiritual and moral dimensions.[8] That is to say, education in many countries is increasingly treated as a means of producing economically viable workers, rather than morally responsible individuals. The rise of STEM-focused curricula and job-oriented degrees has often come at the expense of the humanities, ethics, and religious studies. For instance, public funding for philosophy, ethics, and religious studies programs has declined significantly, and these disciplines are often viewed as “non-essential” or unprofitable. As M. Nussbaum warns in Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities, the systematic devaluation of moral and spiritual education in favor of economic utility does not mean producing democracy, nor does it mean producing a healthy, engaged, educated population[9]

Another pressing concern is the observable decline in emotional intelligence among younger generations. When the students struggle with fundamental interpersonal interactions, their ability to collaborate and address global challenges is significantly hindered. These concerns naturally prompt a critical reassessment of how education is structured and delivered. This decline of emotional intelligence can be seen due to the lack of communication between the new generation, because they lack the ability to interpret and regulate facial expressions, tone of voice, and gestures, which are foundational abilities that enable individuals to navigate social interactions effectively and respond appropriately to various situations. The lack of emotional intelligence leads to a struggle to respond appropriately to social cues or react emotionally to charged situations, and leads to conflict, misinterpretations of intentions, and ineffective communication, especially in a professional and culturally diverse environment.^[10]

Moreover, present-day education tends to compartmentalize itself by talking about “moral education” as optional or extracurricular, rather than integrating it into the core curriculum. Moral instruction is often reduced to abstract, universalist principles such as “respect” or “citizenship,” stripped of ontological or metaphysical grounding.[11] In such environments, students are not taught why something is good or evil, only that it is socially acceptable or not. This relativistic moral outlook leaves students without a stable ethical compass, fostering a “values-free” zone that prioritizes neutrality over guidance.[12]

Additionally, in its attempt to embrace pluralism and neutrality, Western secular education often avoids engaging with spirituality altogether, mistaking it for indoctrination.[13] As a result, students are frequently left without any framework for understanding existential questions about meaning, purpose, and moral responsibility. Unlike premodern education systems, where character formation and spiritual development were integral, modern Western schooling relegates these concerns to private life. The result is an inner vacuum where young people are academically competent but ethically adrift and spiritually disconnected.

Another problem that has arisen is individualism. Modern culture often promotes self-interest and the pursuit of personal goals at any cost, frequently with little consideration for the social, moral, or emotional impact on others. This excessive emphasis on individual achievement has normalized behaviors such as undermining others, ignoring injustice, breaking meaningful social ties, and engaging in performative rather than genuine interactions. Such patterns of conduct, once considered socially detrimental, have regrettably become widespread. Furthermore, Guénon provides a deeper metaphysical critique of this tendency: “individualism, thus defined, is… the determining cause of the present decline of the West, precisely because it is the mainspring for the development of the lowest possibilities of mankind.”[14] The “lowest possibilities” refers to the modes of existence that are detached from any supra-human or transcendent principle, which, as a result, fosters a climate where material gain, vanity, and subjective opinion are taken as ultimate ends. In The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times, he warns that such a mindset is inevitable to lead to “disorder and disintegration” within the social fabric. Because the collective life loses its unifying principles and devolves into “a sum of divergent particularities” that are incapable of true harmony,[15] this could be seen in education, where individual academic ranking and the focus on standardized testing often undermine shared intellectual exploration. The cutthroat competition over cooperation results in the erosion of communal institutions as individuals retreat into isolated, self-referential spheres.

The evidence shows that a disconnection from holistic human values has led to a fragmented and inequitable educational experience. If education is to be reimagined as a vehicle not only for economic productivity but for human flourishing, it must be rooted in principles that balance individual potential with collective well-being, knowledge with wisdom, and reason with spirituality.

The potential of Islamic tradition to address modern issues

In the previous section, we have seen that some personal and social problems have started to rise when the spiritual aspect was removed from education. Spirituality is not only vital for religiosity, but it is also important in other aspects like character building, fostering emotional resilience, promoting ethical decision-making, cultivating empathy and compassion, enhancing personal and interpersonal relationships, developing self-awareness, guiding moral reasoning, and encouraging a sense of community and social responsibility.[16] In this study, I have sought to explore potential solutions derived from Islamic frameworks to address the modern educational challenges outlined in the previous section. Unlike many modern educational models, Islamic education employs frameworks that operate simultaneously at both the macro and micro levels.

The first macro-level change that could be implemented is to reintroduce traditional educational settings. A key feature of classical Islamic education was its foundation upon direct, sustained interaction between students and their teachers or mentors, who were called ‘ulama.[17] A fundamental aspect of this sense of belonging is fostered through in-person interactions. Furthermore, having daily interactions is much more effective to instill knowledge and teach moral character; for instance, the ta‘wīd (habituation method) effectively instills positive character, as it involves repeating good behavior or habits continuously such as asking for permission, thanking others, apologizing, controlling anger and envy, and being patient.^[18] As can be seen, collectivism is a fundamental human inclination that possesses numerous traits that shape individual behavior.[19] Constant positive socialization, where the aim is to refine character and behavior, is one of the standards for the Islamic educational sphere. This interactive atmosphere not only nurtures intellectual growth but also fosters a sense of belonging and emotional security. Furthermore, in this era, the prevalence of loneliness is very apparent and a very serious mental issue experienced by Generation Z.[20] Not only for this reason, but also, Islam emphasizes the importance of ummah (community) through collective worship and khidmah (community service). The implementation of structured service-learning programs in modern education can practically reinforce communal values and social responsibility, helping students appreciate interconnectedness and mutual care.^[21]

Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas argues that the crisis in Muslim societies stems from a loss of adab and the adoption of epistemologies that are alien to the Islamic worldview. One of the contributing factors is the erosion of character. Modern culture often promotes self-interest and the pursuit of personal goals at any cost, frequently with little consideration for the social, moral, or emotional impact on others. This excessive emphasis on individual achievement has normalized behaviors such as undermining others, ignoring injustice, breaking meaningful social ties, and engaging in performative rather than genuine interactions. Such patterns of conduct, once considered socially detrimental, have regrettably become widespread. In light of this, it is worthwhile to explore potential Islamic solutions to this issue, particularly through the lens of Islamic moral and educational philosophy. Classical Islamic scholarship on personality development distinguishes between two key concepts: akhlaq and adab. Akhlaq refers to internal moral character—qualities that reside within the heart and define the essence of a person, such as honesty, sincerity, humility, and integrity. In contrast, adab pertains to external manners and etiquette, encompassing socially observable behaviors such as courteous speech, smiling, offering assistance, and acts of charity. While both akhlaq and adab are essential in Islamic ethical formation, akhlaq holds primacy, as external behaviors can easily be imitated or feigned, whereas genuine moral character is much harder to fabricate, especially over time.[22] This distinction underscores the importance of prioritizing the cultivation of akhlaq within educational settings, arguably even over material subjects.[23] The framework could include collective moral responsibility, where the family nurtures fitrah (a natural disposition toward goodness) and the school reinforces it through its curriculum and environment.[24] Islamic education in this regard teaches virtue ethics, not merely external compliance.

Another Islamic framework that operates at the macro level yet remains vital in pedagogy includes the concepts of tarbiya, ta’lim, ta’dib, and ta’alluq—each addressing distinct dimensions of holistic education. The first term, Tarbiya, which is derived from the root r-b-w (meaning “to grow, increase”), refers to the holistic development and nurturing of an individual’s potential toward maturity. Tarbiya generally refers to the process of nurturing and developing individuals, encompassing physical, educational, moral, and spiritual growth. Ta‘lim, from ‘alima (to know, perceive), denotes the imparting of knowledge through instruction and training. When ta‘lim is understood as a multilayered and interconnected process, it allows for the construction of an educational framework that harmoniously integrates physical, cognitive, affective, and spiritual dimensions, all of which are essential to the holistic development of character. Such a model would necessitate pedagogies that transcend conventional instruction and standardized testing, favoring instead play-based, dialogic, and expressive approaches. [25] The third one is ta’dib, rooted in ‘a-d’b (to be refined, disciplined, cultured), which focuses on moral and social character development, ensuring an understanding of fundamental societal principles, such as justice.[26] Lastly, ta’alluq means attachment, connection, or relationship. It enables us to consider relationality, not just the relationships within a given system. Whilst tarbiya and taʿlim offer ways of understanding learning and teaching, ta’dib provides a more tangible approach, anchoring down a nebulous ideal by laying a foundational framework for the aims, purposes, and ethos of education.^[27] When these concepts are interwoven and supported by fluid curricula responsive to the specific needs of diverse learner groups, education becomes both dynamic and transformative.[28]

It becomes evident that the root of the problem lies at a deeper, more intrinsic level—within the individual. Often, societal issues originate from a fundamental inner deficiency, which then triggers a cascading effect across broader systems. Therefore, I am shifting the focus toward internal, personal transformations that can be cultivated through the education system.In relationships between humans, clarity of consciousness is necessary for behaving and acting in a way that allows individuals to understand and comprehend each other, ultimately creating a harmonious atmosphere where all problems can be resolved. In the previous section, I touched upon how the decline of emotional intelligence is rooted in superficiality, distractions, and disconnection from both inner and outer realities. Some Islamic solutions could be implemented to address this issue. The first one is self-awareness. Islamic education can promote self-awareness through the practice of tafakkur (thinking). Tafakkur literally means to think deeply and systematically about a subject. We live in a world that often feels lacking in deeper meaning beneath its surface. Deep thinking, as a metaphysical process, actually opens our hearts and minds to discern whether it is good or evil, and beneficial or harmful. It is linked to ethical reflection by considering the consequences of one’s actions in light of divine accountability. Through thoughts, a person begins to become aware of what is happening around them, which is a key to opening one’s heart’s eye.[29] Tafakkur, in a sense, invites one to reflect inwardly, on purpose, intentions, and spiritual state. By contemplating, one becomes more attuned to inner emotions, desires, and flaws. Tafakkur is not limited to the self, but it also includes reflecting on the state of others. It is encouraged to think about and empathize with the struggles of others, which is a central trait of high emotional intelligence. Another critical aspect of tafakkur is that it slows the mind and enables the deliberate emotional process, especially in the modern environment where speed, multitasking, and emotional reactivity are prioritized. Overall, the decline of emotional intelligence is rooted in superficiality, distractions, and disconnection from both inner and outer realities; whereas, tafakkur bringsreason, emotion, and ethics into harmony. We need more individuals with higher emotional intelligence to build harmonious communities, as it fosters the ability to recognize and address the emotional needs of others.

For instance a study that has been conducted on female students in Islamic educational institutions in Bekasi City, West Java, Indonesia provides empirical support for this point. The results indicate a significant correlation between the management of Islamic education in the school environment and students’ emotional intelligence, with a correlation coefficient of 0.907. This suggests that the improvements in the educational environment can lead to a proportional increase in students’ emotional intelligence, where a one percent enhancement in environmental quality is associated with a 0.907% increase in emotional intelligence.[30] This result also answered the cause of the rise in negative behavior at school. The reason school environmental factors are important is that they influence the development of individual emotional intelligence. Therefore, theoretically, it is a crucial element that directly impacts the success of the process. As a result of this study, E. Sari has concluded that it is imperative to instill religious values in school elements, fostering discipline, empathy, honesty, and good behavior during breaks. This includes teaching how to refrain from negative actions, practicing smiling, greetings, politeness, and being well-mannered.

Another Islamic framework that helps students become more self-aware, ethically grounded, and spiritually conscious is the practice of muraqabah, derived from the Arabic word meaning watching, supervising, controlling, and living in the consciousness of being controlled. This concept to be practiced in our daily lives is vital in the modern education systems, particularly in technologically saturated societies where oftentimes data accumulation is prioritized over deep learning or external achievements over inner development, or speed over reflection. Students often face mental fatigue, anxiety, shallow understanding, lack of self-awareness, and diminished moral and emotional intelligence. Muraqabah provides an antidote by training students to watch their thoughts, emotions, and intentions. Furthermore, muraqabah fosters metacognition, awareness of one’s awareness, and the ability to reflect on one’s own thinking. According to the American Psychological Association, mindfulness practices help to reduce stress, boost memory, enhance focus and concentration, decrease emotional reactivity, and improve personal relationships.[31]

Another concept is muhasaba, which means reckoning, settling accounts, and self-examination. In a spiritual context, it takes additional meaning as self-criticism, where one constantly analyzes his or her deeds and thoughts in the hope that correcting them will bring him or her closer to God.[32] Muhasaba can encourage individuals to examine their intentions, actions, and consequences regularly. It is also recorded that during the early centuries of Islam, people would either write down or memorize their daily actions, thoughts, and words, and then analyze and criticize themselves for any evil they had committed. Self-criticism can also be described as seeking and discovering one’s inner and spiritual depth, and this is how one distinguishes between good and evil, beneficial and harmful. Muhasaba can encourage individuals to examine their intentions, actions, and consequences regularly. Students can learn to ask not just “what did I achieve?” but also “was it done with integrity and compassion?” Similarly, in therapy, it is now common to keep a journal for reflecting on emotions and behaviors.

Another important concept that could address the problem of moral decay and the erosion of accountability in modern systems is ‘hak meselesi,’ which might be translated from Turkish as “the issues of rights.” This concept means that all people have inherent rights that must be honored and are responsible for ensuring justice in their dealings with others. Any violation of these rights is regarded as ethical and legal misconduct. Living with this mindset makes individuals aware of the consequences and divine justice all the time, which results in, or at least opens the possibility, for people to become more ethical and sensitive. Furthermore, by embedding the concept of hak meselesi within education, students can develop a profound awareness of moral responsibilities, fostering empathy, fairness, and collective well-being, ultimately helping address the ethical deficits and individualistic tendencies prevalent in contemporary educational frameworks.

In light of the challenges explored in the earlier sections, ranging from moral erosion and emotional detachment to individualism, it becomes increasingly clear that the Islamic tradition offers a deeply rooted and comprehensive framework capable of addressing many of modern education’s core deficiencies. Drawing upon principles such as tarbiya, ta‘lim, ta’dib, and ta’alluq, alongside spiritual practices like tafakkur, muraqabah, muhasaba, and hak meselesi, Islamic education presents not just a return to tradition, but a path forward that integrates intellectual rigor with moral and emotional intelligence. It offers a model where character formation, ethical consciousness, spiritual depth, and communal responsibility are not peripheral but central to the educational process. By harmonizing these timeless values with contemporary needs, we can envision an educational paradigm that nurtures the whole person—mind, body, and soul—and fosters a more just, compassionate, and spiritually grounded society.

Conclusion:

True education is the art of shaping souls, instilling ethics, awakening spiritual depth, and nurturing hearts that feel and discern with wisdom. This integration does not mean discarding the scientific or technological advancements of modernity. Rather, it calls for embedding them within a moral and metaphysical framework that clarifies the ultimate aims of human life. Only by restoring an education that honors both the material and the spiritual realms can society truly progress. In such a model, the cultivation of character, reverence, and ethical responsibility carries just as much weight as the development of professional or technical expertise. Through this holistic approach, schools become spaces not merely for training “useful” workers but for shaping conscientious, spiritually rooted stewards of the common good. In doing so, education reclaims its time-honored mission: to harmonize the mind, heart, and soul in service of a more just, compassionate, and ultimately “civilized” civilization.

In conclusion, by foregrounding the indispensability of spirituality and ethics in shaping whole persons, this paper contributes to a growing chorus that seeks to recalibrate education toward the common good. It argues that any sustainable reform must reunite what modernity has torn apart: the pursuit of knowledge (what is) and the cultivation of virtue (what ought to be). A holistic reorientation towards integrating spiritual and ethical character formation with cognitive and technical development could transform education into a more humane, meaningful, and effective endeavor.

[1] Martin van Creveld, The Rise and Decline of the State, 336–414, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511497599.

[2] Palmer, To Know as We Are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey, 14-18.

[3] Berber, “A Review on the Relationship Between Modernization and Education,” Dünya İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi (World Journal of Human Sciences) 2023, no. 1 (January 2023): 123–138.

[4] Institute of Education Sciences, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Saferty in the U.S. Public Schools Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2021-22, 3-5.

[5] Society for Human Resource Management, Workforce Skills Gap Report, 3-4.

[6] Darling-Hammond et al., Solving the Teacher Shortage: How to Attract and Retain Excellent Educators, 8.

[7] Baker, Educational Inequality and School Finance: Why Money Matters for America’s Students, 41–45, 112–116.

[8] Palmer, To Know as We Are Known: Education as a Spiritual, 14–18.

See also, Naquib al-Attas, The Concept of Education in Islam, 9–13.

[9] Nussbaum, Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities, 13-26.

[10] Goleman, “Managing with heart” in Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, 155-172

[11] Hunter, The Death of Character: Moral Education in an Age Without Good or Evil, 4–6.

[12] Taylor, A Secular Age, 25–26, 530–532.

[13] Milbank, Theology and Social Theory, 9-12.

[14] Guénon. The Crisis of the Modern World, 55-56.

[15] Guénon. The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times. 62-67.

[16]. Berkowitz and Bier, “What Works in Character Education: A Research-Driven Guide for Educators,” 10–15.

[17] Gilbert, “Institutionalization of Muslim Scholarship and Professionalization of the ‘Ulamā’ in Medieval Damascus,” 105–34.

[18] Sofiani et al., “Islamic Educational Thought in Building Students’ Emotional Intelligence,” 895–900.

[19] Musah, The Culture of Individualism and Collectivism in Balancing Accountability and Innovation in Education: An Islamic Perspective. 69–76.

[20] Musah, The Culture of Individualism and Collectivism in Balancing Accountability and Innovation in Education: An Islamic Perspective. 69–76.

[21] Esposito,  Islam: The Straight Path, 195-198.

[22] Guénon, The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times, 48.

[23] Hallaq, Restating Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge, 172–176.

[24] Ahmed, Farah, and Chowdhury. “Rethinking Contemporary Schooling in Muslim Contexts: An Islamic Conceptual Framework for Reconstructing K-12 Education.” 152–65.

See also, Halstead, “Islamic Values: A Distinctive Framework for Moral Education?” 283–296.

[25] Ahmed, Farah, and Chowdhury. “Rethinking Contemporary Schooling in Muslim Contexts: An Islamic Conceptual Framework for Reconstructing K-12 Education.” 152–65.

[26] al-Attas, Preliminary thoughts on the nature of knowledge and the definition and aims of education, in: S. M. N. al-Attas (Ed.) Aims and objectives of Islamic education, 2-4.

[27] Ahmed, Farah, and Chowdhury. “Rethinking Contemporary Schooling in Muslim Contexts: An Islamic Conceptual Framework for Reconstructing K-12 Education.” 152–65.

[28] Ahmed, Farah, and Chowdhury. “Rethinking Contemporary Schooling in Muslim Contexts: An Islamic Conceptual Framework for Reconstructing K-12 Education.” 152–65.

[29] Ali. Literature Review on Concept of Tafakkur in Islamic Mysticism, 44–53.

[30] Sari, “The Relation Between Islamic Education Environment Management and Student Emotional Intelligence,” 206-222.

[31]“What are the benefits of mindfulness,” American Psychological Association.

[32] Gülen, “Muhasaba (Self-Criticism or Self-Interrogation)”

References

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3. ———. “Preliminary Thoughts on the Nature of Knowledge and the Definition and Aims of Education.” In Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education, edited by S. M. N. al-Attas, 2–4. Jeddah: King Abdulaziz University, 1979.
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